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The Majeerteen
Sultanates
Farther
east on the Majeerteen (Bari) coast, by the middle of the nineteenth
century two tiny kingdoms emerged that would play a significant
political role on the Somali Peninsula prior to colonization. These
were the Majeerteen Sultanate of Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud,
and that of his kinsman Sultan Yuusuf Ali Keenadiid of
Hobyo (Obbia). The Majeerteen Sultanate originated in the mid
eighteenth century, but only came into its own in the nineteenth
century with the reign of the resourceful Boqor Ismaan
Mahamuud.Ismaan Mahamuud's kingdom benefited from British subsidies
(for protecting the British naval crews that were shipwrecked
periodically on the Somali coast) and from a liberal trade policy
that facilitated a flourishing commerce in livestock, ostrich
feathers, and gum arabic. While acknowledging a vague vassalage to
the British, the sultan kept his desert kingdom free until well
after 1800.
Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud's
sultanate was nearly destroyed in the middle of the nineteenth
century by a power struggle between him and his young, ambitious
cousin, Keenadiid. Nearly five years of destructive civil war passed
before Boqor Ismaan Mahamuud managed to stave off the challenge of
the young upstart, who was finally driven into exile in Arabia. A
decade later, in the 1870s, Keenadiid returned from Arabia with a
score of Hadhrami musketeers and a band of devoted lieutenants. With
their help, he carved out the small kingdom of Hobyo after
conquering the local Hawiye clans. Both kingdoms, however, were
gradually absorbed by the extension into southern Somalia of Italian
colonial rule in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
THE NORTH-EASTERN
SOMALILAND SULTANATES
The north-eastern sultanates
of Majeerteen and Hobyo developed a very effective political
organization with diversified measures of centralized authority over
relatively large territories. Italy, Britain, Germany and France had
been trying to solicit them into their sphere of influence since the
early days of their competition for the Somali peninsula. In the
closing decades of the 1880s Germany was the first colonial power to
have built a special relationship with the Majeerteen.
To the other colonial
powers' surprise however, on 7 April 1889, it was Italy who
concluded a treaty of protection with the Majeerteen sultanate,
having only a few months before, in December 1888, signed a similar
treaty with the Hobyo sultanate. The protectorate agreements were
renewed by the Majeerteen on 7 April 1895 and on 11 April 1895 by
the Hobyo.
The treaty terms clearly
stipulated that Italy was not to interfere in the internal affairs
of the sultanates, and in order to promote the Italian Government
and the sultanates' interests, Italy agreed to send commissioners
to both sultanates.
By accepting Italy's
protection in December 1888, Sultan Yusuf Ali of Hobyo was planning
to use Italy's support in his dispute with the Sultan of
Zanzibar over the border region north of Warsheekh. He was
also interested in using this support against Boqor Osman of the
Majeerteen Sultanate with whom he contested control over the Nugaal
Valley. As a countermove against Sultan Yusuf Ali, Boqor Osman
Mahamud also accepted Italy's protection. They had both signed the
protectorate agreements for their own expansionist objectives, and,
by exploiting the conflicting interests among competing powers, to
avoid direct occupation of their territories by force.
However, the relationship
between Hobyo and Italy was complicated when Sultan Yusuf Ali
refused the Italian proposal to sanction a British contingent of
troops to disembark at Hobyo to pursue their battle with the
Daraawiish (see above) in April 1903. Because of this controversy,
Sultan Yusuf Ali and his son Yusuf Ali were eventually deposed by
the Italians and deported to Assab in Eritrea
Conflict of Interest
The sultanate of Majeerteen
lay on the utmost tip of the Horn. To the north was the Red Sea, in
the east there was the Indian Ocean. To the south of Majeerteenia
stretched the Nugaal Valley. To the west British Somaliland.
To define their zone of
influence, the Italian and British administrations signed the
Anglo-Italian Treaty of 5 May 1894 which defined the Majeerteen
Sultanate as being east of the 490 Meridian. The line fell to the
east of Taleh and Baran. In 1906 Cavalier Pestalozza and
General Swaine signed an agreement recognising
Baran as under the Majeerteen sultanate. Among other things, the
Anglo-Italian treaty stipulated that the Italian government be
responsible for any act committed by the Majeerteen against the
people under British protection.0 All these dealings were taking
place behind the backs of the peoples concerned.
In March 1901, Boqor Osman
extended his border by capturing two small towns in the Mudug
region. The Mudug was an area regarded as Sultan Yusuf Ali's realm.
As both sultans were under Italian protection, the contention
prompted Giulio Pestalozza, the Italian Consul at Aden, to sail to
Baargaal, the seat of the Majeerteen court, to press Boqor Osman to
retreat and respect the treaties. Boqor Osman refused to give in.
The matter worried Italy and
it reasoned that unless Boqor Osman was brought under their
directive they feared they could not control the sultanate.
Misunderstanding and distrust was in the making. The conflict of
interest was leading to confrontation as each side began accusing
the other.
Whilst the situation was
still in confusion, the Italian Minister in Cairo intercepted a
letter from Boqor Osman seeking Ottoman protection over what the
latter termed the "Independent Majeerteen Somali".
Furthermore, Italy learned about the sultanate's arms
build-up. Before it was too late, Italy decided to breach the treaty
and to bring Boqor Osman to his knees. The Volta ship bombarded the
coastal villages of Bareeda and Bender Khassim (Boosaaso), crippling
the sultanate's modest arms and ammunition warehouses. Boqor Osman
fled to the interior, while Italian troops captured the sea towns of
Alula, Bender Khassim, Bareeda and Muranyo. Boqor Osman had been
taken by surprise, and had attempted unsuccessfully to counter the
Italians in too many battlefields.
Things were further
complicated by other developments in the region: the Italo-British
arrangements for confining the Daraawiish to the Nugaal area was
growing untenable. The British had failed to secure peace with the
Daraawiish and were in retreat. The good relationships which in the
past Boqor Osman had had with Sayid Mahamed ended
after persistent Daraawiish scorched earth raids on Majeerteen
settlements. Initially Boqor Osman had repulsed invasions of his
Sultanate by the Daraawiish. But armed confrontation with the
Italians had made him vulnerable to the Daraawiish attacks. He
turned to the Italians for an "honourable settlement".
Because of the Daraawiish
threat to their Benaadir colony and the weakness of control afforded
by the existing treaty with the Majeerteen, the Italians opted to
open a dialogue with Boqor Osman. After long negotiations, in March
1910, they signed a renewal of the treaty but with a more rigid and
effective protectorate powers and in their own interpretation.
From
Sovereign to Subject: The Elimination of the North-Eastern
Sultanates
The dawn of fascism in the
early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy as the
north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the
boundaries of La Grande Somalia according to the plan of fascist
Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on
15 December 1923 things began to change for that part of Somaliland.
Italy had access to these parts under the successive protection
treaties, but not direct rule. The fascist government had direct
rule only over the Benaadir territory.
Given the defeat of the
Daraawiish movement in the early 1920s and the rise of fascism in
Europe, on 10 July 1925 Benito Mussolini gave the green light to De
Vecchi to start the takeover of the north-eastern sultanates.
Everything was to be changed and the treaties abrogated.
The real principles of
colonialism meant possession and domination of the people, and the
protection of the country from other greedy powers. Italy's
interpretation of the treaties of protection with the north-eastern
sultanates was comparable to her view of the Treaty of
Uccialli with Abyssinia, and meant absolute control of the
whole territory. Never mind that the subsequent tension between
Abyssinia and Italy had culminated in 1896 in the battle of Adwa in
which the Italians were overwhelmed and outmanoeuvred. The Italians
had not learned their lesson, they were committing the same
historical mistake.
Governor De Vecchi's first
plan was to disarm the sultanates. But before the plan could be
carried out there should be
sufficient Italian troops in both sultanates. To make the
enforcement of his plan more viable, he began to reconstitute the
old Somali police corps, the Corpo Zaptié, as a
colonial force.
Preparations for the
Invasion
In preparation for the plan
of invasion of the sultanates, the Alula Commissioner, E. Coronaro
received orders in April 1924 to carry out a reconnaissance on the
territories targeted for invasion. In spite of the forty year
Italian relationship with the sultanates, Italy did not have
adequate knowledge of the geography. During this time, the
Stefanini-Puccioni geological survey was scheduled to take place, so
it was a good opportunity for the expedition of Coronaro to join
with this.
Coronaro's survey
concluded that the Majeerteen Sultanate depended on sea traffic,
therefore, if this were blocked any resistance which could be
mounted came after the invasion of the sultanate would be minimal.
As the first stage of the invasion plan Governor De Vecchi ordered
the two Sultanates to disarm. The reaction of both sultanates was to
object, as they felt the policy was in breach of the protectorate
agreements. The pressure engendered by the new development forced
the two rival sultanates to settle their differences over Nugaal
possession, and form a united front against their common enemy.
The First Casualty:
Hobyo
The Sultanate of Hobyo was
different from that of Majeerteen in terms of its geography and the
pattern of the territory. It was founded by Yusuf Ali in the middle
of the nineteenth century in central Somaliland. The jurisdiction of
Hobyo stretched from El-Dheere through to Dusa-Mareeb in the
south-west, from Galladi to Galkayo in the west, from Jerriiban to
Garaad in the north-east, and the Indian Ocean in the east.
By 1st October, De Vecchi's
plan was to go into action. The operation to invade Hobyo started in
October 1925. Columns of the new Zaptié began to move towards the
sultanate. Hobyo, El-Buur, Galkayo, and the territory between were
completely overrun within a month. Hobyo was transformed from a
sultanate into an administrative region. Sultan Yusuf Ali
surrendered. Nevertheless, soon suspicions were aroused as Trivulzio,
the Hobyo commissioner, reported movement of armed men towards the
borders of the sultanate before the takeover and after. Before the
Italians could concentrate on the Majeerteen, they were diverted by
new setbacks. On 9 November, the Italian fear was realised when a
mutiny, led by one of the military chiefs of Sultan Ali Yusuf, Omar
Samatar, recaptured El-Buur. Soon the rebellion expanded to
the local population. The region went into revolt as El-Dheere also
came under the control of Omar Samatar. The Italian forces tried to
recapture El-Buur but they were repulsed. On 15 November the
Italians retreated to Bud Bud and on the way they were ambushed and
suffered heavy casualties.
While a third attempt was in
the last stages of preparation, the operation commander, Lieutenant-Colonel
Splendorelli, was ambushed between Bud Bud and Buula Barde.
He and some of his staff were killed. As a consequence of the death
of the commander of the operations and the effect of two failed
operations intended to overcome the El-Buur mutiny, the spirit of
Italian troops began to wane. The Governor took the situation
seriously, and to prevent any more failure he requested two
battalions from Eritrea to reinforce his troops, and assumed lead of
the operations. Meanwhile, the rebellion was gaining sympathy across
the country, and as far a field as Western Somaliland.
The fascist government was
surprised by the setback in Hobyo. The whole policy of conquest was
collapsing under its nose. The El-Buur episode drastically changed
the strategy of Italy as it revived memories of the Adwa fiasco when
Italy had been defeated by Abyssinia. Furthermore, in the Colonial
Ministry in Rome, senior officials distrusted the Governor's ability
to deal with the matter. Rome instructed De Vecchi that he was to
receive the reinforcement from Eritrea, but that the commander of
the two battalions was to temporarily assume the military command of
the operations and De Vecchi was to stay in Muqdisho and confine
himself to other colonial matters. In the case of any military
development, the military commander was to report directly to the
Chief of Staff in Rome.
While the situation remained
perplexed, De Vecchi moved the deposed sultan to Muqdisho. Fascist
Italy was poised to re-conquer the sultanate by whatever means. To
manoeuvre the situation within Hobyo, they even contemplated the
idea of reinstating Ali Yusuf. However, the idea was dropped after
they became pessimistic about the results.
To undermine the resistance,
however, and before the Eritrean reinforcement could arrive, De
Vecchi began to instil distrust among the local people by buying the
loyalty of some of them. In fact, these tactics had better results
than had the military campaign, and the resistance began gradually
to wear down. Given the anarchy which would follow, the new policy
was a success.
On the military front, on 26
December 1925 Italian troops finally overran El-Buur, and the forces
of Omar Samatar were compelled to retreat to Western Somaliland.
The Second Casualty:
The Fall of the Majeerteen Sultanate
By neutralising Hobyo, the
fascists could concentrate on the Majeerteen. In early October 1924,
E. Coronaro, the new Alula commissioner, presented Boqor Osman with
an ultimatum to disarm and surrender. Meanwhile, Italian troops
began to pour into the sultanate in anticipation of this operation.
While landing at Haafuun and Alula, the sultanate's troops opened
fire on them. Fierce fighting ensued and to avoid escalating the
conflict and to press the fascist government to revoke their policy,
Boqor Osman tried to open a dialogue. However, he failed, and again
fighting broke out between the two parties. Following this
disturbance, on 7 October the Governor instructed Coronaro to order
the Sultan to surrender; to intimidate the people he ordered the
seizure of all merchant boats in the Alula area. At Haafuun,
Arimondi bombarded and destroyed all the boats in the area.
On 13 October Coronaro was
to meet Boqor Osman at Baargaal to press for his surrender. Under
siege already, Boqor Osman was playing for time. However, on 23
October Boqor Osman sent an angry response to the Governor defying
his order. Following this a full scale attack was ordered in
November. Baargaal was bombarded and razed to the ground. This
region was ethnically compact, and was out of range of direct action
by the fascist government of Muqdisho. The attempt of the colonisers
to suppress the region erupted into explosive confrontation. The
Italians were meeting fierce resistance on many fronts. In December
1925, led by the charismatic leader Hersi Boqor,
son of Boqor Osman, the sultanate forces drove the Italians out of
Hurdia and Haafuun, two strategic coastal towns on the Indian Ocean.
Another contingent attacked and destroyed an Italian communications
centre at Cape Guardafui, on the tip of the Horn. In retaliation
Bernica and other warships were called on to bombard all main
coastal towns of the Majeerteen. After a violent confrontation
Italian forces captured Ayl (Eil), which until then had remained in
the hands of Hersi Boqor. In response to the unyielding situation,
Italy called for reinforcements from their other colonies, notably,
Eritrea. With their arrival at the closing of 1926, the Italians
began to move into the interior where they had not been able to
venture since their first seizure of the coastal towns. Their
attempt to capture Dharoor Valley was resisted, and ended in
failure.
De Vecchi had to reassess
his plans as he was being humiliated on many fronts. After one year
of exerting full force he could not yet manage to gain a result over
the sultanate. In spite of the fact that the Italian navy sealed the
sultanate's main coastal entrance, they could not succeed in
stopping them from receiving arms and ammunition through it. It was
only early 1927 when they finally succeeded in shutting the northern
coast of the sultanate, thus cutting arms and ammunition supplies
for the Majeerteen. By this time, the balance had tilted to the
Italian's side, and in January 1927 they began to attack with a
massive force, capturing Iskushuban, at the heart of the Majeerteen.
Hersi Boqor unsuccessfully attacked and challenged the Italians at
Iskushuban. To demoralise the resistance, ships were ordered to raze
and bombard the sultanate's coastal towns and villages. In the
interior the Italian troops confiscated livestock. By the end of the
1927 the Italians had nearly taken control of the sultanate.
Defeated and humiliated, Hersi Boqor and his top staff were forced
to retreat to Ethiopia in order to rebuild the forces. However, they
had an epidemic of cholera which frustrated all attempts to recover
his force.
After two years of
devastating war in which thousands of civilians died and the entire
economy of the sultanate was ruined, razing all coastal towns and
villages, the Italian colonial administration could boast that it
had broken the Majeerteen resistance and put an end to an era in
Somaliland. Boqor Osman fled to the British Somaliland, but was
handed back to the Italians. In November the formal act of surrender
took place in Hurdia, and Boqor Osman dramatically consigned his
sword to Governor De Vecchi. Later Boqor Osman was exiled to
Muqdisho. With the elimination of the north-eastern sultanates and
the breaking of the Benaadir resistance, from this period
henceforth, Italian Somaliland was to become a reality. The
partition of Somaliland was already shaping during this period and
the fate of the Somalis was at the mercy of the colonial powers.